Individual Differences RE: Failure to Function Adequately

Failure to Function Adequately

Abnormality is failing to achieve some sense of personal well-being and failing to make some contribution to a larger group.

(1) Personal distress or discomfort as a ‘failure to function adequately’
e.g. hearing voices telling you to do things you don’t want to

(2) Distressing/discomforting others as a ‘failure to function adequately’
e.g. A family member who is abusing alcohol or some other substance

(3) Maladaptive behaviour as a ‘failure to function adequately’
e.g. Being unable to leave home to go to work

(4) Behaving bizarrely as a ‘failure to function adequately’
e.g. A man dressing up as a woman

Limitations:

-         Some states that cause us personal distress are actually appropriate responses in certain circumstances (e.g. depression is not abnormal unless it persists)

-         Some behaviours that are classified as mental disorders do not cause personal distress

-         It is impossible to measure ‘personal distress’ and ‘maladaptiveness’ in an objective way

-         Whether a behaviour is an example of failing to function adequately depends on the context in which that behaviour occurs

-         A behaviour which might be considered a failure to function adequately in one culture might be viewed as functioning adequately in another culture

Individual Differences RE: Deviation from Social Norms

Deviation from Social Norms

Abnormality is doing things that society says should not be done or not doing things that society says should be done (i.e. violating a society’s implicit or explicit social norms)

·        Explicit norms = Society’s norm

·        Implicit norms = Society’s unwritten rules, or, residual rules

-         If society says X should be done and anybody who does X is normal and anybody who does not do X is abnormal

-         If society says X should not be done and anybody who does not do X is normal and anybody who does X is abnormal

Limitations:

-         Some behaviours which deviate from social norms are actually statistically frequent

-         Different cultures have different social norms, so what is ‘normal’ in one culture may be ‘abnormal’ in another

-         Era dependent

Individual Differences RE: Deviation from Ideal Mental Health

Deviation from Ideal Mental Health

Abnormality is defined as possessing characteristics the mentally healthy should not possess, and/or not possessing characteristics the mentally healthy should possess

*Jahoba’s Checklist for Mental Health*

-         Being able to make your own decisions

-         Being able to resist stress

-         Being able to perceive reality accurately

-         Being able to ‘self – actualise’

-         Being able to adapt to the environment

Limitations:

-         Most people do not satisfy all, many or any of the ideals.

-         Claims about ‘ideal mental health’ are value judgements

-         Different cultures have different ideals (bound by culture)

-         Even within a culture ‘healthiness’ is determined by the context in which the behaviour occurs

-         Era dependent

-         A persons stage of development

Individual Differences RE: Statistical Infrequency

Statistical Infrequency

Based on how frequently a behaviour occurs.
Abnormality is defined as behaving in ways the majority do not behave in, or not behaving in ways the majority do behave in.

Abnormal if:

-         Most people do not behave in a certain way but you do behave in that way. (your behaviour is the minority)

e.g.  Homosexual behaviour
        Cannibalistic behaviour

-  Most people behave in a certain way but you do not behave in that way (your behaviour is the minority)

e.g. Wearing clothes to go shopping
        Washing on a regular basis

Limitations:

-         It fails to take into account the social desirability of minority behaviours or characteristics (There are many statistically infrequent behaviours which we value)

-         There are some behaviours which are statistically frequent, but are either socially undesirable, and/or are actually classified as mental disorders

-         The cut-off point for deciding when a behaviour is infrequent enough for us to call it ‘abnormal’ are purely arbitrary (not determined)

-         The statistical frequency of a behaviour can differ between cultures, so this definition is ‘bound by culture’

-         Cultural Relativism – No one culture has the right to tell another culture how they should behave, or what abnormality is

-         The statistical frequency of a behaviour can also differ within cultures, as well as between cultures.

Research Methods RE: Presenting Data

Graphs

Bar charts display discrete data and have gaps between the bars
Histograms display continuous data. They are drawn without gaps between the columns
Frequency Polygon is the name of a line drawn through the top points of a histogram in the absence of the bars
Scattergraphs/scattergrams display the data in a correlation study through which a line of best fit representing the correlation coefficient (r) may be drawn

Presenting Qualitative Data

Qualitative analysis involves the analysis of non-numerical data
Qualitative data from observations, surveys, interviews, and content analysis including: speech, books, magazines, videos, TV, films and computer games, as well as reflections and personal experience.

There are two approaches to analysing qualitative data:

• The first approach focuses on converting qualitative data into quantitative data for analysis. Convert analysis is often used to establish this conversion
• This approach involves coding qualitative by identifying recurrent words, concepts and themes. By establishing categories and counting the number of times these categories are used in the text.
• In observational studies you would establish behavioural categories relating to the behaviour being studies.

Presenting Pure Qualitative Analysis:

• The second approach rejects the conversion of qualitative data into quantitative data and works in the spoken script.
• The qualitative method is descriptive, dealing with personal data, rich in detail and varied in content. The data would be transcribed in its authentic form probably from a recording. You would organise and categorise the content and detail, by reading to identify recurrent themes, and the re-reading for emerging themes in the text.
• The emergent themes may include the client's attitudes, opinions, hopes and ambitions. Short medium or long term thinking. Views of self and others. Sources of mental conflict, clarifying and interpreting psychological issues.

Research Methods RE: Measures of Dispersion

Measures of central tendency give an idea of a typical value
Measures of dispersion describe the spread of data around the central value
Measures of central tendency should include a measure of dispersion of the data

Three measures of dispersion

• Range
• Semi-interquartile Range
• Standard Deviation

Range
Simplest measure of dispersion and is calculated by subtracting the lowest score in the data set from the highest score.
e.g. 'Days of work because of sickness'
3,5,6,6,6,8,9
9 - 3 = 6

The range is mostly used as a measure of dispersion with the mode and median

Advantages:

• Easy to calculate
• Takes into consideration extreme score

Disadvantages:

• Only using two scores in the data set and ignoring the rest
• The extreme scores could distort the range

Semi-interquartile Range
This measure of dispersion is normally used with the median as the measure of central tendency. The range can also be used with the median.

The Semi-interquartile Range is a measure of the spread of the middle 50% of the data, i.e. 25% of data below the median and 25% above the median.
Having set the data out in order. It ignored the lowest quarter and highest quarter of the data set.
The whole data set if set out on a scale may be represented as a Box and Whisker plot.

Advantages:

• The Semi-interquartile Range is less distorted be extreme scores than the range

Disadvantages:

• It only relates to 50% of the data set, ignoring the rest of the data set
• It can be laborious and time consuming to calculate by hand

Standard Deviation
This measure of dispersion is normally used with the mean as the measure of central tendency.
The Standard Deviation (SD) tells the mean distance of the scores in the data set from the mean.
A large SD describes scores that are widely spread out above and below the mean, suggesting the mean is not representative of the data set.
If the SD is small than the mean more closely represents the scores in the data set.

Formula:
1. Calculate the mean, x with a line over it, x-bar
2.Set up a table, column 1 is x, write down each value of the data set, then subtract the mean from each value in column 1 and write answer in column 2
3. Multiply each figure in column 2 by itself and write in column 3 (Squaring)
4. Add all the numbers in column 3 then divide by the number of scores in the data set (n) then square root this figure to get the SD

Advantages:

• SD is the most sensitive measure of dispersion as it is derived by using every score in the data set ans is not very distorted by extreme scores. The SD is closely related to the mean and is the best measure of dispersion to use when the mean is being used as the measure of central tendency

Disadvantages:

• Laborious to calculate but calculators make so it easy!

Research Methods RE: Mean, Median and Mode

The mean, median and mode are all measures of central tendency.
Central Tendency- Descriptive statistics that identify which value is most typical for the data set

The Mean
Adding all of the scores in a data set together and dividing by the number of scores.
e.g. Height/cm; 153, 146, 151, 170, 160
Added together =780
780 divided by 5 =156cm
The mean =156

Advantages:

• The most powerful measure of central tendency because it it made up from all of the scores in the data set

Disadvantages:

• Any rogue outliers can distort the mean making it untypical of the data set
• Sometimes the mean does not make sense in terms of the data set e.g. the number of children per family in the UK = 2.4

The Median
When all of the scores in a data set have been put in order, the median is the central number in the set.
E.g. Age of employees/years; 21, 29, 34, 44, 56
The median age of the employees is 34

Advantages:

• The median is less effected by extreme scores than the mean

Disadvantages:

• It is not suited to being used with small sets of data especially if containing widely varying scores
  e.g. 7, 8, 9, 102, 121 where the median would be 9. A more real median would be 60!

The Mode
The most frequent occuring number in the data set when put in order
e.g. Days off work because of sickness; 3, 5, 6, 6, 6, 8, 9.
Mode = 6

The data set could be Bimodal (two modes) or even multimodal

Advantages:
The mode is normally unaffected by extreme scores and may give an idea of how often something is occurring e.g. what size of shoes sell most when ordering stock

Disadvantages:
The mode may not be central measure, and a set of data may not have a most frequent score

Research Methods RE: Interviews and Case Studies

Interviews
An alternate method of asking questions
Face-to-face, and can provide more detailed information and is a more natural and flexible approach to questioning.

Advantages:

• Qualitative, as great detail can be harnessed
• Participant can express themselves as they please
• Unstructured interviews allows honesty in a participant. This raises the potential of psychological enquiry

Weaknesses:

• If unstructured, the interview runs the risk of being weak in terms of statistical analysis
• Interviews take longer than questionnaires
• Increased risks of investigator effects e.g. interpersonal variables will increase

Case Study
A gathering of detailed information concerning an individual or a group of people
This makes it idiographic- relating to individual cases or events
Case studies can be longitudinal or retrospective

Advantages:

• Produces descriptive, qualitative data that is rich in detail
• High realism, therefore high ecological validity
• Known to challenge new psychological insights

Disadvantages:

• Reliability of data can be varied as case studies are difficult to replicate
• Low population validity due to difficulty of generalising the study beyond the individual or group being studied

Research Methods RE: Surveys and Questionnaires

Surveys
A large number of people being asked questions on a particular topic at a particular moment in time

KEY CONSIDERATIONS:

• Types of questions: Either open or closed questions may be used
• Easy to understand questions
• Being mindful of ethics
• Pilot study before performing the survey proper

Questionnaires

NECESSITIES FOR A QUESTIONNAIRE:

• Open or closed questions
• Questions and instructions must be easy to understand
• Keep amount of asked info to a minimum
• Be mindful of ethics
• Carry out a pilot study

Strengths of Questionnaires:

• Large samples can be questioned efficiently
• Also efficient as researcher does not need to be present
• Used to collect large amounts of data on the opinions of people as well as what they say they do
• All of the above reduce investigator effects as there is a reduction in the influence of interpersonal factors

Weaknesses of Questionnaires:

• People may not tell the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth regarding sensitive issues e.g. parenting styles, alcohol consumption.
• The above is an example of social desirability, humans putting themselves in the best possible light
• Distortion of sampling frame, such as people only taking part if they can read or write
• Clarity of questions- people may interpret answers in their own fashion

Research Methods RE: Open and Closed Questions

Advantages of Open Questions:

• Participant can write in their own words, hence producing qualitative data, which is rich and detailed in terms of data
• More realistic
• Participant can precisely express what they are thinking

Disadvantages of Open Questions:

• Analysis may be difficult due to qualitative nature; takes time to read

Advantages of Closed Questions:

• Predetermined responses allows quantitative data and can be statistically analysed

Disadvantages of Closed Questions:

• Questioning is unrealistic; therefore artificial
• Unclear as to how the participant has answered the question
• No richness compared to qualitative responses

Examples
Open: 'What do you think of the internet as an educational medium?'
Closed: 'Does you use the internet?'

Research Methods RE: Correlational Methods

Correlation is the relationship between two factors.

Two Types:
Positive- As one variable increases, the other variable increases. This is a proportional relationship.

Advantages:
Can establish a relationship between two variables
Researchers can statistically analyze situations that could not be manipulated experimentally for ethical or practical reasons

Disadvantages:
Cannot establish CAUSE AND EFFECT
Third variable may not be established
Only linear relationships can be classified as correlation. Curvilinear is not correlation!!
e.g. The relationship between temperature and aggression is curvilinear; the relationship between aggression and temperature is linear up to a point, but at higher temperatures aggression begins to decrease.

Research Methods RE: Methods and Techniques

Pilot Study
A small scale trial run of a study to test the design with a view of making improvements

Experimental Methods
Most Rigorous way of testing a hypothesis
Establishes cause and effect
Manipulation of IV to see the effect on the DV
Experimental control is established through control of extraneous variables

Observational Methods
Focuses on particular categories of behaviours and events
Will have clear operational definitions of behaviours or events

Two Types:

• Naturalistic Observation
• Controlled Observation

Research Methods RE: Lab, Field, Natural

Social Psychology - Obedience

Autonomous State:

Our behaviour is voluntary and we are aware of our own actions and their consequences

Agentic State:

We see ourselves as acting on someone else’s behalf and are therefore less likely to feel guilt about our behaviour

Locus of Control

External – Feel things are beyond their control. They tend to be insecure and less confident

Internal – Feel they are in control of their own circumstances. They tend to be confident and have a positive outlook.

Social Psychology - Obedience RE: Milgram

Did Milgram harm his participants?

-Their reactions would suggest that he did

How did Milgram defend himself against this charge?

-Experts he asked before the study didn’t think participants would behave obediently (So they wouldn’t be harmed by their experiences)

-Participants were ‘momentarily stressed’ by their experiences, but not ‘harmed’ by them

-Participants were extensively debriefed and given counselling to ensure there was no long-term harm done to them

Did Milgram deceive his participants?

-Yes

How did Milgram defend himself against this charge?

-Without using technical illusions, the study could not have been done

-Similar issues in other areas of social psychological research

-Deception is acceptable if participants accept it is necessary and the reasons for its use worthwhile

-Participants were extensively debriefed after the study

Did Milgram get informed consent from his participants?

-He can’t have done since the study involved deception

How did Milgram defend himself?

-He suggested researchers should get prior general consent from participants and/or use presumptive consent

Prior General Consent –

Participants are told: ‘This experiment may involve deception. Do you wish to continue?’

Presumptive Consent –

Unless the participant asks whether deception will be used, it is presumed that s/he will be ok if they are deceived

Participants right to withdraw from the investigation

-Participants never explicitly told they could leave at any time

-Verbal prods may have influenced participant’s behaviour

Payment upfront may have influenced participant’s behaviour

How did Milgram defend himself?

-This was the whole point of the experiment!

Social Psychology RE: Obedience to authority and explanation of why people obey

How have psychologists studied conformity and what have they found out about it?

Milgram

Electric shocks

18 variations

Teacher and learner

75 volts – 450 volts

Criticism –

1. Lacked experimental validity, as participants knew they weren’t giving real electric shocks and just carried on to see what the experiment was about.

However this has little substance. Post-experimental interviews were given where majority believed they were giving shocks.

2.  Carried out in laboratory = lack ecological validity.

Milgram set up a version of study in ‘real world’. Found slightly less obedience, but still enough to convince him that lab and real world experience was no different.

3. Unethical. Milgram accused of deception, failing to protect participants from harm, failing to secure informed consent, and not giving participants the right to withdraw.

Had to deceive participants or results would be bias. Not harmed just momentarily stressed. Had the right to withdraw – part of the experiment.

Results in initial study-

26/40 (62.5%) continued all the way up to 450 volts (total obedience)

Most people WILL obey orders that go against their conscience

Variation 10 -

Seedy offices in ‘Downtown’ New Haven

47.5% obedience

Variation 18 –

Two teachers

Naive teacher presumably sees the other teacher as being responsible/

90% obedience

Variation 13 –

The experimenter is dressed as an ordinary man

20% obedience

Other Studies:

Bickman (1974) -

Three male experimenters gave orders to 153 randomly selected pedestrians in Brooklyn, New York

Dressed in one of three ways

1.       A sports coat and tie

2.       A milkman’s uniform

3.       A guard’s uniform resembling that of a police officer

Found that participants were most likely to obey the experimenter dressed as a guard than as a milkman or civilian

Zimbardo, et al (1973) –

The ‘guards’ treated the ‘prisoners’ so bad that the experiment had to be terminated 8 days early.

Hoffling (1966)

Nurses

21/22 obeyed

Why do people obey authority figures?

 Milgram’s explanations –

1. Personal responsibility

2. The perception of legitimate authority

3. Socialisation

4. The-foot-in-the-door

Social Psychology - Conformity RE: Resisting Conformity

Personality factors that have been suggested to affect resistance to conformity:

• Nervousness
• Feelings of inferiority
• Insecurity
• Self-blame
• Need for approval from others

We are more likely to conform if we feel we 'beling' in the group; more likely to resist conformity.
If we feel we share a 'Psychological identity' with members of the other group then it is much easier to conform because we feel comfortable and feel like we belong.

Nemeth (1986)
We are more likely to think about the issue when exposed to a minority viewpoint

Group Unanimity
If the group split then people find it easier to resist conformity because then they are not the only ones giving a different answer and they wont feel as much pressure
Asch found that if just one other group member agrees with the naive was enough to reduce conformity from 33% to 5.5%

Group Size
ISI - As group size increases so does conformity
Conformity is at it's greatest when the majority is between 3 and 5
The smaller the group the more likely people are to resist conformity because we are not as pressured to fit in because there are less people in the group. Therefore we find it easier to become individual

Psychological Reactance
Forbidden fruit
We change our views to a position opposite to that expected
More likely if the perceived restriction on freedom is given by an authority figure and if it is requested aggressively

Social Psychology - Conformity RE: Cultures

Culture-

Not all studies have obtained the same results as Asch.

One study carried out in Britain in 1979 found 0% conformity

Cultures such as Fiji and Japan show more conformity than the USA

Cultures such as France and Portugal show much less conformity than the USA

Characteristics of individualistic cultures:

Emphasis is on promoting self interest and the interests of the immediate family, with less concern about the needs and interests of others.

Stress placed on the rights, not duties of the individual.

Privacy demanded.

Individual initiative encouraged

Examples:

USA

UK

Characteristics of Collectivistic cultures:

Emphasis is placed on loyalty to the group, and the needs and interests of others. In turn, the group looks after the well-being of the individual.

Stress is places on the duties, not rights, of the individual.

Less demand for privacy.

Group decision preferred to individual decisions.

Examples:

Many African cultures

Fiji

Social Psychology - Conformity RE: Types of conformity and explanations of why people conform

On a need to know basis: How psychologists have studied conformity.

Asch

Line judgement task

Stooges (confederates)

Naive participant

6 Neutral trials (correct answers)

6 Critical trials (Incorrect answers)

Main findings-

1.       No-one conformed on all 12 trials

2.       One person conformed on 11/12 trials

3.       37/50 conformed  at least once, but 13/50 never conformed

4.       The mean (average) conformity rate was 3.84/12 trials (32%)

Evaluation –

1. Only male university students we tested, sample is limited, not ‘ordinary’ people. (The study lacks population validity).

2. Study raises several ethical issues – deception and the lack of informed consent.

3. The study was carried out in a laboratory, lacks ecological validity.

4. The study is time consuming; only one participant can be tested at a time.

5. Asch’s figure of conformity is not always the same as other conformity studies. How much conformity is found depends on social climate at time of study. Conformity also affected by cultures (collectivist cultures more likely to conform than individualistic cultures).

Compliance = publicly agree with the group, but privately disagree with their view.

Internalisation = publicly agree with group, and privately agree with their view.

Why do people conform?

(NSI) Normative Social Influence = Conform because we fear rejection or because we want approval, even though we do not believe what we are saying, conformity occurring through.

(ISI) Informational Social Influence = genuinely do not know what way to behave in a situation; we are likely to see how other people are behaving in that situation. When we behave like them because it is unclear how we should behave, conformity occurring through.

Research Methods RE: Ethical Issues

Code of Ethics

• Informed consent
• Advoidance of deception
• Debriefing
• Protection of harm
• Right to withdraw
• Confidentiality
• Observational research

Ethical issues occur when there is a dilemma between what the researcher wants to do in order to conduct the study and the rights or the participants rights and dignity.

Deception:
It prevents the participant from giving informed consent.

Informed consent:
Lack of informed consent means that the participant has not agreed to be in the research.
They could end up doing things that they would not really want to.

Protection of Participants:

• They have a right to not be harmed while taking part in an experiment
• They should leave just as they have entered
• If they are harmed, it could have long term effect on their future

Dealing with ethical issues

Methods for dealing with deception: 

Debriefing:
The researcher will reveal the true aim of the research.
The aim of the debriefing is to insure that the participant leaves the same way they had entered the experiment.

Retrospective informed consent:
Once the true nature of the study has been revealed, the participant has the right to withdraw.

Methods for dealing with informed consent:

Prior general consent:
Obtaining prior consent of the participant to see if they would take part in a study that involved deception. If they agree then it would be ok to include them in future research involving deception

Presumptive consent:
Taking a random sample of the population and introducing them to the research including deception, if they agree that it would be ok then we can generalise from this to the general population

Parental consent:
When using children as participants then the researcher need parental consent.

Methods for dealing with protection of participants:

• Reminding the participants they have a right to withdraw
• The researcher ending the experiment if the harm is higher than was expected
• Debriefing

Research Methods RE: Sampling

Sampling
Once you have decided who you want to study this would be your target population.
It would be hard to test an entire population so you need to find a representative sample.

If the sample is not representative then it is considered biased.

Random Sampling
Everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected.
To do this everyone in the target must be identified and you draw the names at random e.g. out of a hat or using a computer.
This is considered to be representative and have higher population validity.

Opportunity Sample
A sample that consists of those people available to the researcher.
The researcher asks people to take part and anybody who agrees or is available takes part.
There is a high chance that the population will be biased.

Volunteer Sampling
This is a sample of participants that self select by volunteering to take part in the study.
The researcher would advertise their research and people who respond would be the sample.
High chance of bias, as the people who decide to take part are a particular type
e.g. a study on gardening may attract more gardeners.

Research Methods RE: Reliablilty and Validity

Reliability
Two or more measurements/observations of the same psychological event are consistent with each other

Validity
The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure

Internal Validity:
If the outcome is the result of variables that are manipulated in the study

External Validity:
The extent to which findings can be generalised to settings other than the research setting.
e.g. Population validity, ecological validity.
Ecological Validity - How closely the methods, materials and setting of the experiment approximate the real-life situation being studied

Face Validity:
Whether or not the test is based on subjective interpretation. Does it appear to measure what it has been designed to measure

Concurrent Validity:
Comparing the results of a new test with that of an old test known to have good validity

Predictive Validity:
The ability to predict performance on future tests

Research Methods RE: Demand Characteristics and Investigator Effects

Demand Characteristics
Things that encourage participants to act in a certain way.
e.g. The participant has realised the aim of the study, which can lead to the participant to behave how they think they should.

Investigator Effects
The researcher may, at an unconscious level, behave in such a way as to bring about their prediction

Single Blind Technique:
The participants do not know the hypothesis they are in or what condition they are in

Double Blind Technique:
Neither the participants nor the experimenter knows the hypothesis or the condition. This involves someone else carrying out the data collection on behalf of the experimenter

Research Methods RE: Variables

Variables
Something that can be changed

IV:
Something the experimenter manipulates and is assumed to have an effect on the DV

DV:
The variable that is affected by the changes in the IV

Operationalising
In order for a hypothesis to be precise you need to operationalise the variables.
This is the process of devising a way of measuring a variable.
When the variables have been defined clearly and objectively the hypothesis will then be able to be tested precisely.

e.g. To see the effect of happiness on success in exams you would need to operationalise happiness (score on a scale of happiness)
Success in exams- the score they have on A level exams

Extraneous Variables:
General term for any variables other than the IV that might effect the DV.
Where EV's are important enough to provide alternative explanations for the effects, they become confounding variables
Extraneous Variables MIGHT effect the DV
Confounding Variables DO effect the DV

There are many different types of EV that need to be taken into account:

Situational Variables
e.g. Temperature, instructions, lighting
These can be controlled with standardisation by making sure conditions in the rooms are the same

Participant Variables
e.g. IQ, age, gender, personality
These are controlled through the design of the experiment. Matched participant design

In addition, other variables need to be controlled:
Demand Characteristics
Investigator effects

Research Methods RE: Aim and Hypothesis

Aim
A general statement about the purpose of the investigation

Hypothesis
A Precise statement about the expected outcome of the investigation. Usually based on previous observations. Prediction not a theory

Experimental hypothesis:
A hypothesis used in the context of the experiment. Also called the alternative hypothesis
e.g. Boys are better than girls at football

Null Hypothesis:
Tends to state that there is NO effect on the two variables
e.g. Gender has no significant effect on colour blindness
There is no difference between the findings of the observed variables

Directional Hypothesis:
Sometimes the hypothesis will predict the direction that the results are expected to go
e.g. Boys will be significantly more aggressive than girls

Non-directional:
The hypothesis does not state the direction but states that one variable will effect the other or that there will be a difference between the two sets of scores
e.g. Gender will have a significant effect on levels of aggression

Introduction

I have made this blog for anyone doing AS psychology at Springwood. I have shared this with some of you but not everyone. Can you please let others know. It may be useful and it may not be. It is for anyone who is struggling.
Lauren